To Kill A Mockingbird Chapter Summaries

Chapter 2-3 Dill goes back to his hometown.. ]em and scout have first day of skool ms. Caroline tries to give money to Walter Cunningham for lunch but he never has lunch he's supa poor scout gets in trouble for being able to read and write then burris ewell makes ms. Caroline cry scout wants to drop outta skool but makes a compromise wit atticus that she will go to skool if they keep reading everynight. Chapter 4 Scout thinks something is missing and school wasn't really in her future. She finds 2 pieces of gum near the Radley property but Jem makes her spit it out then the next day they find two pennies and keep them†¦Scout and Calpurnia are getting along. Mrs. Henry Lafayette Dubose meanest old lady ever. Jem roles scout down the road ina tire she falls out and Jem acts tuff and gets the tire out off boo's yard then they play Boo Radley (reinactment) Jem says boo radly is dead but that makes scout nervous because she knows he isnt Sent from my Verizon Wireless BlackBerry Chapt er 5 Dill purposed to Scout then forgot about it a little later in the summer. Dill and Jem excluded Scout. Scout became closer to Ms. Maudie Atkinson. (Widow Scout describes as chameleon lady, hates her house and gardens. ) Scout and Ms.Maudie talk about the Bible. The 3 kids try to dangle a fishing pole with a note on it saying come out to Boo Radley, but Atticus gets mad. Chapter 6 It is the last day Dill is in Maycomb, and at night they decide to try to catch a glimpse of Boo Radley, but they see a shadow and run away. While they are running, Scout trips and makes a gunshot noise (or Boo shoots not sure) they try to meet at a tree near school but Jem's pants get stuck on a fence and have to lie to the adults that he lost them in strip poker to Dill. During the night he goes and gets them even though Scout tells him not too.Chapter 7 Scout is now in 2nd grade and Jem tells her that the night he went back to Radley Place for his pants, they had been sewed messily and folded like s omeone knew he would come back. They also found a ball of grey string in the hiding spot they discovered. The next day they found 2 pieces of soap with images carved in the shape of a boy & a other in a crude dress. They realize the images carved in are themselves. They are trying to figure out who did it. Two weeks later they find a whole pack of gum. Four days later they found a broken pocket watch with an aluminum knife.They write a thank-you note to the giver, but Nathan Radley had cemented in the whole saying it was dying but it was really healthy. Chapter 8 Scout says her and Jem haven't been obeying their dad, Atticus. Mrs. Radley died but no one really cared. It snows for the first time and Scout is scared because she's never seen snow. They have a snow day and no one but them seems to like the snow. They make a large snow man filled with dirt because they don't have much snow. Ms. Maudie's house catches on fire along with Ms. Rachel's but only Ms. Maudie's burns down. Someh ow a mysterious blanket appears around Scout's shoulders.It is implied that Boo Radley put it there. Jem comes clean about all their secrets. They return Ms. Maudie's hat and hedge clipper that they had borrowed to diguise the snowman. Chapter 9 Scout gets mad because Cecil Jacobs says Atticus defends blacks (in court). Scout keeps trying to get out of going to school. Atticus only tells her yes (he does defend a black) and his name is Tom Robinson (a good friend of Cal's). He doesn't want to tell Scout what the case is. He says he took the case to keep respect. Scout talks about Cousin Ike. Uncle Jack stays with them for a week and gives them air rifles.Then, they visit Finch's landing for Christmas. Francis, her annoying cousin, also gives her trouble over Atticus taking Tom Robinson's case. Chapter 10 Atticus is very old (50) unlike the childrens' classmates. He has a â€Å"boring† Job. He never drinks or anything so he isn't very inconspicous. Atticus says its a sin to ki ll a mockingbird because all they do is sing. Scout tries to shoot Ms. Maudie's butt, so Atticus goes over to warn her. The kids go hunting and find Tim a hurt old dog, so they want to help him, but Cal calls around to warn people about the mad dog.The ops come and everyone locks themselves inside. Someone hands Atticus a gun to shoot the dog but he refuses. He ends up shooting the dog and his kids cannot believe he shot the dog. They find out that Atticus' nickname was old one shot. Ms. Maudie tells the kids he gave up hunting because he thought god gave him an unfair advantage. Chapter 1 1 Jem and Scout hate Mrs. Dubose and think she keeps a pistol concealed, and they tried not to past her house. Atticus says Mrs. Dubose is old and sick and not to let her get to Jem. Jem and Scout go to town to buy himself a little steam engine and Scout a aton.But, Jem gets very mad when she says Atticus isn't any better than the n*ggers he defends. Scout pulls him away. When they walk back home, Mrs. Dubose wasnt on the porch. Jem snatched her baton and ran through her yard and left only when he ruined all of her camellia flower bushes, he broke Scouts baton. Atticus gets mad at Jem for ruining Mrs. Dubose's garden and makes him go apologize to her. Atticus says he couldn't go to church if he didn't take Tim Robinson's case. Mrs. Dubose has Jem clean up her yard and says every saturday he has to work on her yard and every ay except Sundays tor a month ne nas to read to her.Scout describes ner as very ugly. While he was reading, she began to become distant (NOT in a good way). They ask if she is okay. Atticus tells Scout what a n*gger lover is. They realize that the alarm clock has been going off a little later each day. They finally finish all the reading and are very happy. Mrs. Dubose dies and Atticus brings a candy box home from her for Jem. Atticus wrote her will and she broke herself from her morphine addiction right before she died. She died free as the â€Å"mounta in air† the box has a white camellia in it. He yells â€Å"Oh hell devil! Atticus wanted Jem to see how courageous she was and courage isn't a man with a gun it is someone that knows they are going to lose but still goes through with whatever they are doing. Chapter 12 Jem is 12 and Scout realizes she shouldn't bother him. Jem tells her to be a girl. Summer comes and Dill doesn't come because he has a new father that he will be spending time with him. He starts reading the paper and all that. Cal says the kids can go to church with her, they are excited. Everyone is respectful of the group, except for Lulu, who asks why Cal brought white kids to a n*gger church.No instruments or books inside, Just a wooden fan for everyone. Even though the kids have dimes, they take Cal's. The priest introduces them and says, â€Å"you all know their father. † They count the money and say no one can leave until they have $10 to help Tim's family. The priest says that Atticus was the ch urch's best friends. Cal tells Scout that Tim is in Jail for supposedly raping Mr. Ewell's girl. Scout doesn't know what a rape is. The kids find out that no one from the church can read and that Cal's supposed birthday is on christmas. Cal worked on Finch's Landing since she could ork and has always worked for the Finchs.Cal told the kids that she spoke like she was black with her neighbors at church so she wouldn't be out of place. Chapter 13 Aunt Alexandra visits. Her and Atticus decided it would be good for Scout to have a feminine role model. Atticus comes back and tells the kids that he thinks it is a good idea for Auntie to live with them, but Scout knows it was Auntie's idea. She became secretary to a Maycomb club. The town is so small and everyone married in it, so Scout says everyone looks alike. Auntie tells Atticus to do and he does tell the kids to live up to the Finch name.Scout and Jem feels like Atticus isn't the same person, but he changes back because Aunt Alexandr a told him to. Chapter 14 When Jem and Scout are going through town, people keep making comments and someone says something about rape, so when Atticus got home Scout asked him what rape was. Atticus says rape is â€Å"carnal knowledge of a female by force and without consent. † She asks him why Cal wouldn't tell her what rape was if that was all it was. Scout asks if she can go to Cal's house, but Auntie sharply says no. Scout over hears Auntie saying they should get rid of Cal. Scout and Jem brawl but Atticus eparates them.Scout thinks there's a snake under her bed but it turns out to be Dill. He hates his new father and tells them that a nearby farmer had been feeding him. Chapter 1 Dill scout and Jem follow atticus to town where they find him sitting in front of Tom robbinson's Jail cell, he waited until a huge mob of people cam in one of the people being the cunningham father. Scout starts sauing things about mr. Cunningham's son, and she gets the whole entire mob to lea ve tom alone without even realizing that she did so Chapter 16 The kids and Atticus go out in the night. In the morning Atticus says BraxtonUnderwood is a negro-hater, and Aunt Alexandra tells him not to say that infront of Cal, but Atticus says she probably knows and she also knows how much she means to them. Scout has noticed a change in Atticus over the past three days. They talk about how even though Mr. Cunningham was ready to kill Atticus with the mob they are still friends and the mob people are still people otherwise Scout couldn't have stopped them. Scout says when Walter comes back to school she's going to kill him, but Atticus tells her NOT to. Atticus tells the kids not to go downtown that day. (NOTE: pg 218 good quote atticus' parenting and profession) To Kill A Mockingbird Chapter Summaries Chapter 2-3 Dill goes back to his hometown.. ]em and scout have first day of skool ms. Caroline tries to give money to Walter Cunningham for lunch but he never has lunch he's supa poor scout gets in trouble for being able to read and write then burris ewell makes ms. Caroline cry scout wants to drop outta skool but makes a compromise wit atticus that she will go to skool if they keep reading everynight. Chapter 4 Scout thinks something is missing and school wasn't really in her future. She finds 2 pieces of gum near the Radley property but Jem makes her spit it out then the next day they find two pennies and keep them†¦Scout and Calpurnia are getting along. Mrs. Henry Lafayette Dubose meanest old lady ever. Jem roles scout down the road ina tire she falls out and Jem acts tuff and gets the tire out off boo's yard then they play Boo Radley (reinactment) Jem says boo radly is dead but that makes scout nervous because she knows he isnt Sent from my Verizon Wireless BlackBerry Chapt er 5 Dill purposed to Scout then forgot about it a little later in the summer. Dill and Jem excluded Scout. Scout became closer to Ms. Maudie Atkinson. (Widow Scout describes as chameleon lady, hates her house and gardens. ) Scout and Ms.Maudie talk about the Bible. The 3 kids try to dangle a fishing pole with a note on it saying come out to Boo Radley, but Atticus gets mad. Chapter 6 It is the last day Dill is in Maycomb, and at night they decide to try to catch a glimpse of Boo Radley, but they see a shadow and run away. While they are running, Scout trips and makes a gunshot noise (or Boo shoots not sure) they try to meet at a tree near school but Jem's pants get stuck on a fence and have to lie to the adults that he lost them in strip poker to Dill. During the night he goes and gets them even though Scout tells him not too.Chapter 7 Scout is now in 2nd grade and Jem tells her that the night he went back to Radley Place for his pants, they had been sewed messily and folded like s omeone knew he would come back. They also found a ball of grey string in the hiding spot they discovered. The next day they found 2 pieces of soap with images carved in the shape of a boy & a other in a crude dress. They realize the images carved in are themselves. They are trying to figure out who did it. Two weeks later they find a whole pack of gum. Four days later they found a broken pocket watch with an aluminum knife.They write a thank-you note to the giver, but Nathan Radley had cemented in the whole saying it was dying but it was really healthy. Chapter 8 Scout says her and Jem haven't been obeying their dad, Atticus. Mrs. Radley died but no one really cared. It snows for the first time and Scout is scared because she's never seen snow. They have a snow day and no one but them seems to like the snow. They make a large snow man filled with dirt because they don't have much snow. Ms. Maudie's house catches on fire along with Ms. Rachel's but only Ms. Maudie's burns down. Someh ow a mysterious blanket appears around Scout's shoulders.It is implied that Boo Radley put it there. Jem comes clean about all their secrets. They return Ms. Maudie's hat and hedge clipper that they had borrowed to diguise the snowman. Chapter 9 Scout gets mad because Cecil Jacobs says Atticus defends blacks (in court). Scout keeps trying to get out of going to school. Atticus only tells her yes (he does defend a black) and his name is Tom Robinson (a good friend of Cal's). He doesn't want to tell Scout what the case is. He says he took the case to keep respect. Scout talks about Cousin Ike. Uncle Jack stays with them for a week and gives them air rifles.Then, they visit Finch's landing for Christmas. Francis, her annoying cousin, also gives her trouble over Atticus taking Tom Robinson's case. Chapter 10 Atticus is very old (50) unlike the childrens' classmates. He has a â€Å"boring† Job. He never drinks or anything so he isn't very inconspicous. Atticus says its a sin to ki ll a mockingbird because all they do is sing. Scout tries to shoot Ms. Maudie's butt, so Atticus goes over to warn her. The kids go hunting and find Tim a hurt old dog, so they want to help him, but Cal calls around to warn people about the mad dog.The ops come and everyone locks themselves inside. Someone hands Atticus a gun to shoot the dog but he refuses. He ends up shooting the dog and his kids cannot believe he shot the dog. They find out that Atticus' nickname was old one shot. Ms. Maudie tells the kids he gave up hunting because he thought god gave him an unfair advantage. Chapter 1 1 Jem and Scout hate Mrs. Dubose and think she keeps a pistol concealed, and they tried not to past her house. Atticus says Mrs. Dubose is old and sick and not to let her get to Jem. Jem and Scout go to town to buy himself a little steam engine and Scout a aton.But, Jem gets very mad when she says Atticus isn't any better than the n*ggers he defends. Scout pulls him away. When they walk back home, Mrs. Dubose wasnt on the porch. Jem snatched her baton and ran through her yard and left only when he ruined all of her camellia flower bushes, he broke Scouts baton. Atticus gets mad at Jem for ruining Mrs. Dubose's garden and makes him go apologize to her. Atticus says he couldn't go to church if he didn't take Tim Robinson's case. Mrs. Dubose has Jem clean up her yard and says every saturday he has to work on her yard and every ay except Sundays tor a month ne nas to read to her.Scout describes ner as very ugly. While he was reading, she began to become distant (NOT in a good way). They ask if she is okay. Atticus tells Scout what a n*gger lover is. They realize that the alarm clock has been going off a little later each day. They finally finish all the reading and are very happy. Mrs. Dubose dies and Atticus brings a candy box home from her for Jem. Atticus wrote her will and she broke herself from her morphine addiction right before she died. She died free as the â€Å"mounta in air† the box has a white camellia in it. He yells â€Å"Oh hell devil! Atticus wanted Jem to see how courageous she was and courage isn't a man with a gun it is someone that knows they are going to lose but still goes through with whatever they are doing. Chapter 12 Jem is 12 and Scout realizes she shouldn't bother him. Jem tells her to be a girl. Summer comes and Dill doesn't come because he has a new father that he will be spending time with him. He starts reading the paper and all that. Cal says the kids can go to church with her, they are excited. Everyone is respectful of the group, except for Lulu, who asks why Cal brought white kids to a n*gger church.No instruments or books inside, Just a wooden fan for everyone. Even though the kids have dimes, they take Cal's. The priest introduces them and says, â€Å"you all know their father. † They count the money and say no one can leave until they have $10 to help Tim's family. The priest says that Atticus was the ch urch's best friends. Cal tells Scout that Tim is in Jail for supposedly raping Mr. Ewell's girl. Scout doesn't know what a rape is. The kids find out that no one from the church can read and that Cal's supposed birthday is on christmas. Cal worked on Finch's Landing since she could ork and has always worked for the Finchs.Cal told the kids that she spoke like she was black with her neighbors at church so she wouldn't be out of place. Chapter 13 Aunt Alexandra visits. Her and Atticus decided it would be good for Scout to have a feminine role model. Atticus comes back and tells the kids that he thinks it is a good idea for Auntie to live with them, but Scout knows it was Auntie's idea. She became secretary to a Maycomb club. The town is so small and everyone married in it, so Scout says everyone looks alike. Auntie tells Atticus to do and he does tell the kids to live up to the Finch name.Scout and Jem feels like Atticus isn't the same person, but he changes back because Aunt Alexandr a told him to. Chapter 14 When Jem and Scout are going through town, people keep making comments and someone says something about rape, so when Atticus got home Scout asked him what rape was. Atticus says rape is â€Å"carnal knowledge of a female by force and without consent. † She asks him why Cal wouldn't tell her what rape was if that was all it was. Scout asks if she can go to Cal's house, but Auntie sharply says no. Scout over hears Auntie saying they should get rid of Cal. Scout and Jem brawl but Atticus eparates them.Scout thinks there's a snake under her bed but it turns out to be Dill. He hates his new father and tells them that a nearby farmer had been feeding him. Chapter 1 Dill scout and Jem follow atticus to town where they find him sitting in front of Tom robbinson's Jail cell, he waited until a huge mob of people cam in one of the people being the cunningham father. Scout starts sauing things about mr. Cunningham's son, and she gets the whole entire mob to lea ve tom alone without even realizing that she did so Chapter 16 The kids and Atticus go out in the night. In the morning Atticus says BraxtonUnderwood is a negro-hater, and Aunt Alexandra tells him not to say that infront of Cal, but Atticus says she probably knows and she also knows how much she means to them. Scout has noticed a change in Atticus over the past three days. They talk about how even though Mr. Cunningham was ready to kill Atticus with the mob they are still friends and the mob people are still people otherwise Scout couldn't have stopped them. Scout says when Walter comes back to school she's going to kill him, but Atticus tells her NOT to. Atticus tells the kids not to go downtown that day. (NOTE: pg 218 good quote atticus' parenting and profession)

Kautilya’s arthashastra and war - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 32 Words: 9635 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. Arthashastra Kautilya on War. Kautilya was a proponent of a welfare state but definitely encouraged war for preserving the power of the state. Kautilyas Arthashastra is a book of pure logic, not taking any religious aspect into account. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Kautilyaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s arthashastra and war" essay for you Create order It deals with the various subjects directly and with razor like sharpness. The Arthashastra totally contains 5363 Sutras, 15 books, 150 chapters, and 180 Sections. The 15 Books contained in the Arthashastra can be classified in the following manner: Book 1, as a book on Fundamentals of Management, Book 2 dealing with Economics, Books 3, 4 and 5 on Law, Books 6, 7, 8 describes Foreign Policies. Books 9 to 14 concerns subjects on War. The 15th book deals with the methodology and devices used in writing the Arthashastra. What is interesting to note is that the topic of war is the last subject in the Arthashastra. War is always the last option. However, a war in certain cases is unavoidable, hence, preparation and maintenance of the army, the right moves in the battle field and warfare strategies all are essential in the defence of a country, subjects which Kautilya tackles with the extra sensory precision. Economics in Statecraft and War. Kautilya thought that the possession of power and happiness in a state makes a king superior hence a king should always strive to augment his power. Kautilya propounded that war is natural for a state. He said that, Power is strength and strength changes the minds[2].Economic power has helped shape statecraft. This element of power is very flexible. Thi s aspect of the power is one which Arthashastra concentrates on and has highlighted Artha, the economics of the state in the pursuit of power. The quest for power is driven by the satisfaction of the king and his subjects in all the spheres of material well being and social acceptance. This can be achieved by a progressive and robust economy. A corollary to this fact is that the economics of a state can be used to progress the influence of the state over international issues and also used to augment the war waging potential of the state. Whether a nation has a large or small military, its leadership does understand economics. Economics is a great tool to create conditions for further action or force a nation to change behaviour. There are constraints prevelant in the pursuit of sound economy to further the war waging capability of a state and in turn achieve te power . the resolution of these constraints is the enigma which Kautilya unraveled through Arthashastra. 2. Kautilya presents that for a King to attain these three goals he must create wealth, have armies and should conquer the kingdoms and enlarge the size of his state. This is quite interesting because he in a way does believe that a states superiority is in its military and economic might which is what later philosophers and rulers have followed. In the case of war, Kautilya advocates the King to be closely involved in the science of war. 3. Classifications of War. Kautilya advocated three types of war: Open war, Concealed war and the Silent War[3]. Open war he describes as the war fought between states, concealed war as one which is similar to guerilla war and Silent war which is fought on a continued basis inside the kingdom so that the power of the King does not get diluted. He believed that there were three types of kings who go into warfare and it is important to understand the distinction between the types of kings and the appropriate warfare strategy to be selected. 4. Kautilya propounded that state is not considered a massive entity but as one which combines various internal constituents à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" the king , the fortified city ,the countryside, the treasury and the army. The power with which a state can promote its own interests over other states in the neighbourhood depends on how close to ideal the internal constituents are. The four devices Kautilya used for deriving practical advice were: relative power, deviations from the ideal, classification by the type of motivation and the influence of the unpredictable. This is the core what Arthashastra addresses as the endeavour is to resolve all the constraints that arise in the quest of the state to gain ascendency and enhance its power. 5. War fighting tactics. Kautilya was also very harsh in narrating the exact methods of fighting a war and use of various tools to reduce the strength of a state. Kautilya wrote in detail explaining the war strategy because he was a strong proponent of social structure. He vehemently defends the state and believes that religion and morals are supposed to serve the state. In Kautilyas concept of war, chivalry does not have any place and he is a realist. Kautilya in his Arthashastra and believes that war is a means to an end for wealth and stability. He provided the understanding to resolve all the constraints which emerge to achieve the ends. Kautilya has argued that the primary constraint that a state faces is the economic constraints and many a war has been lost for want of resources. The Arthashastra has guided the king in eliminating the constraints, primarily the economic constraints in the furtherance of its interests. The use of economic strength as a means of statess power has also been highlighted by Kautilya. 6. Kautilya also took the societal structure and Kings power as given and never challenged it. His focus was not on war per se but on the strategy and tactics of war which elaborates in his work. In describing his opinion on war, he has been very right in saying that a state which seeks power is in war all the time and economy is the most definitive aspect which governs the quest of the state for power. CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY Statement of the Problem 1. The aim of this paper is to investigate the modus operandi for the resolution of the economic constraints, imposed in an armed conflict during the Arthashastra period and its concurrence in the present times. Justification for the Study 2. Constraints in War. Armed conflict has many facets attached to it and it is not a mere attack and capture as the folklore puts it to be. The constraints as they emerge, from the time of planning of a battle till the time the armies face each other at the outbreak of the hostilities, are what the commander in the battlefield has to counter and work out the resolution of each of the prevalent constraints. The constraints as defined for the evaluation of this research is akin to the risks or uncertainties as they present themselves in the battlefield and which may govern the outcome of the war or the projection of the true power of the nation state. The constraints present as tangible constraints and also intangible blocks which have to be resolved in order to progress the war and ultimately achieve victory. The tangible constraints can be classified as the economic requirements for war effort to sustain and the logistics support required for the armed forces and the intangibles are morale, leadership and the training of the troops. 3. Evaluating Constraints. The fog of war has prompted strategists throughout history to grapple with the concept of constraints/risk and methodologies for its assessment. There will always be uncertainty. It often will be immeasurable. The very nature of war and conflict and the increasingly complex strategic environment ensures that this is so. Is risk/constraint assessment simply the .comfort level that senior planners experience as they assess key variables? [6] Strategic risks then is the probability of failure in achieving a strategic objective at an acceptable cost. The concept is simple to articulate and easy to understand. But, as in war, the simplest things in strategy are the most difficult. 4. Constraints Management Arthashastra . The Arthashastra is essentially a treatise on the art of government and specially focuses on aspects of internal administration and foreign policy. It has been translated as Science of Politics, Treatise on Polity or the Science of Political Economy. These have been translated over time in the subjects of Timeless Laws of Politics, Economy, Diplomacy and War. Kautilyas treatise encapsulates in many ways, the complexity of the modern times with the constraints faced during war being the same as were relevant in older times. The problems that existed then, persist in a more widespread and magnified manner in the contemporary world. The principles of Constraint resolution in the Military strategy followed by Kautilya are also relevant in the contemporary world. Study of Kautilyas war strategy will provide an insight into the knowledge of warfare in ancient India and would also throw up important aspects of the constraints to warfare in the moder n world, besides enhancing understanding and pride in our country and its thinkers. 5. Hypothesis. The growth of the nation state has been based on the gain of the economic power and the shift in the economic potential. This has resulted in the economics of war emerging as the single most important constraint in the war waging potential of a nation state. The concurrence of the economic power with the military power of a nation state has been the cornerstone of the present day world powers. Kautilya in Arthashastra had realised the prominence of economy in the statecraft and the war strategy. How relevant those postulates are in the modern day strength of a nation state? The ability of the state to exert its influence for the furtherance of the national interests has been defined by the resolution of the economic constraints. The military has become the national instrument that can enforce the economic objective and thus the military power of a nation. Therefore the role of the economic power and the resolution of the economic constraints of a nation are primary for the acceptance of a Nation-State as a world power. 6. Scope. The scope of this paper is restricted to study and analysis of the economics of war. The financial constraints in the war potential of the State and the methods adopted by Kautilya to resolve those constraints. The study will attempt to identify possible constraints in the war potential of the State and present the relevance of Arthashastra in constraint management with the modern day constraint resolution. It will be further endeavoured to understand the lacunae in the present day approach and investigate the Arthashastra for solutions. Thereafter, the paper will focus on assessing the perceived link between economic power of the state and the military power and how one is derived from the other. The resolution of the economic constraints as practiced during Kautilyas time and in the modern times will also be discussed. 7. Methods of Data Collection. There are many books written translating the Arthashastra. Modern Warfare strategy has many parallels in the theories as propounded by Kautilya. Research on this topic will be mostly based on the translations of Arthashastra and its relevance with the modern day approach to the resolution of the economic constraints in the war waging potential of the nation state. Sources are likely to include the following:- (a) Books written by eminent authors and translation of the Arthashastra by various authors. (b) Articles in periodicals and Journals. (c) Reports of International strategists and researchers on Arthashastra. (d) Websites featuring proceedings of various conferences and meetings on the subject. (f) Papers published or presented by various organisations on the subject. 8. Organisation of the Dissertation. This study is envisaged to be organised under the following chapters:- (a) Introduction. (b) Methodology. (c) Constraints in warfare à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"Drawing parallels with Arthashastra. (d) Arthashastra approach to economics of war. (e) Derivation of Military power from economic power. (f) Resolution of economic constraints to war potential. (g) Conclusion CHAPTER III CONSTRAINTS IN WARFARE à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" DRAWING PARALLELS WITH ARTHASHASTRA 1. Interests of the nation state. The behavior of a nation-state is rooted in the pursuit, protection, and promotion of its interests. The interests of the nation state are to be accurately identified to understand much of its behavior vis-ÃÆ'  -vis other states and actors in the international system. All states have common interests like its territory, its people, and its sovereignty. While forces outside their own boundaries affect all countries large and powerful, small and weak, a certain level of sovereignty is critical to the notion of national interests. A country that is unable to exercise effective control over its territory and its peoples, relatively free from the intrusion of other nation-states into its internal affairs, is lacking in this critical element of sovereignty. War is an instrument of national policy, albeit a violent one. 2. Arthashastra view point. Kautilyas Arthashastra was a science of politics intended to teach a wise king how to govern. In this work, Kautilya offers wide-ranging and truly fascinating discussions on war and diplomacy, including his wish to have his king become a world conqueror, his analysis of which kingdoms are natural allies and which are inevitable enemies, his willingness to make treaties he knew he would break, his doctrine of silent war or a war of assassination against an unsuspecting king, his approval of secret agents who killed enemy leaders and sowed discord among them, his view of women as weapons of war, his use of religion and superstition to bolster his troops and demoralize enemy soldiers, the spread of disinformation, and his humane treatment of conquered soldiers and subjects. 3. Kautilya thought there was a science of warfare, presumably part of a larger science of politics. Kautilya advised the king not to leave military matters entirely to others: Infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants should carry out practice in the arts outside (the city) at sun-rise. The king should constantly attend to that, and should frequently inspect their arts.[9] Open war is obvious, and concealed war is what we call guerrilla warfare, but silent war is a kind of fighting that no other thinker could propound and thus Kautiliya was much ahead of his times and this makes his thinking relevant even today. Silent war is a kind of warfare with another kingdom in which the king and his ministersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ and unknowingly, the peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ all act publicly as if they were at peace with the opposing kingdom, but all the while secret agents and spies are assassinating important leaders in the other kingdom, creating divisions among key ministers and classes, and s preading propaganda and disinformation. 4. Kautilya advised the king that When he is superior in troops, when secret instigations are made (in the enemys camp), when precautions are taken about the season, (and) when he is on land suitable to himself, he should engage in an open fight. In the reverse case, (he should resort to) concealed fighting.[12] 5. Overriding the constraints. Speaking of justice to an enemy about to conquer is the last tactic of the weak, willing to try all tactics, even desperate ones, Kautilya made up a powerful speech to be given by a weak king to the king about to conquer, a speech offering a mixture of moral exhortation and arguments based on the self-interest of the conqueror. In this speech, Kautilya depicted an envoy saying to the conquering king that he should accept a treaty and pay regard to [his] spiritual and material well-being; that conquering a kingdom willing to surrender on reasonable terms is an impious act; that battle is not in the conquering kings self-interest, since to fight with brave men who have given up all hope of life is a rash deed and the conqueror will lose troops and material good; that such a conquest will only unite his enemies all the more; that the conquering kings enemies are only waiting for him to be weakened in order to attack; that he himself is risking death; that war itself in which men on each side die is an impious act; and that he should not listen to enemies masquerading as friends who are giving him false advice as to his real self-interest.[13] Kautilya demonstrated the realities of diplomacy and war as well as the ineffectiveness of moral pleas when confronted by a superior power. Kautilya wanted legions, but he wanted them preceded by elephants, which acted in the ancient world a bit like modern tanks. 6. Kautilya considered the treasury most valuable in raising an army, procuring equipment (including elephants), and preparing for war. After the treasury and the army, Kautilya focused on the importance of the fort, on which depends the treasury, the army, silent war, restraint of ones own party, use of armed forces, receiving allied troops, and warding off enemy troops and forest tribes. And in the absence of a fort, the treasury will fall into the hands of enemies, those with forts are not exterminated.[15] 7. Constraint resolution. Kautilya was consistent in ranking the importance of the treasury, the army, and forts, but it seems that the people, or a popular army, are the most important of all. As he put it, one should seek a fortress with men.[19] 8. Kautilya apparently believed that an army of kshatriyas was best; warriors were supposed to find their highest duty and pleasure by dying in battle. Kautilya clearly argued that sections of the army should consist mostly of persons from the same region, caste or profession. It was a very clever idea to be mooted as common sense, shows that he is suggesting that men of an army should know one another, that an army of friends fighting side by side is the most difficult to defeat. On the subject of the kings location during battle, for example, he wrote: A bare army, without standards, consisting of warriors related as fathers, sons and brothers, should be the place for the king. An elephant or a chariot should be the vehicle for the king, guarded by cavalry. (Kautilya wanted a man who looked like the king to lead the army into battle.) And thus, a kings power, for Kautilya, is in the end tied to the power and popular energy of the people, without which a king can be conquered, for n ot being rooted among his subjects, a king becomes easy to uproot.[20] Although Kautilya wrote of using money to raise an army and even of purchasing heroic men, he was not advocating mercenaries who fought only for pay, but he was merely outlining the cost of paying, supplying, and feeding soldiers. He believed that hereditary troops are better than hired troops; in other words, troops made of men born in the kingdom and thus loyal to the king since birth are better than strangers fighting for money. 9. Contemporary school of thought. While military power may be the primary tool a nation uses to wage war, it is not the only one available. Military power, together with economic and political power, may be used to impose ones will upon an opponent. These other elements of national power, such as economic or political, are linked with military action at the national strategic level and passed to the operational and tactical levels of military actions through constraints or limitations on the use of force. Nevertheless, these other elements of power are not fully integrated at the lower levels of war. In the Marxist tradition, Svechin included the possibility of war on economic and social fronts as well as on a military front. [21] The actions along all fronts must be fully integrated and in accord with the political goals of the struggle. The use of diplomatic efforts to preclude and enemy alliance or a second hostile (military) front and economic efforts to insure sufficient financ ial resources for the conduct of combat operations. 10. While Kautilya had propounded the postulates for constraint management in warfare in the ancient times but the relevance with the contemporary thought is startling. Military power being only one of the instruments of national power has been highlighted by Kautilya and the same thought is holding today. The resolution of the constraints and overriding of the bottlenecks faced by the commander in the battlefield have their genesis in the employment of all the instruments of national power towards conflict resolution and that is why Arthashastra has been regarded as the epitome of statecraft in all the spheres. If decisive military force is used only as a last resort, after extensive diplomatic, economic, political, and even military power short of actual war have failed to break the will of the enemy, a quick and well placed application of military force would leave little opportunity for the implementation of further nonmilitary initiative. One must never lose sight of the overall objective of warfare which is to get the enemy to do ones will. This may be best achieved through a thoughtful and complete linkage of all elements of national power. With that linkage brought down to the operational level, chances for a long-lasting victory will increase dramatically. This is where Arthashastra and the present day war strategy are concomitant. CHAPTER IV ARTHASHASTRA APPROACH TO ECONOMICS OF WAR 1. Economics of the nation state. Economic power has become a very powerful tool to enhance the capabilities of a nation and limit those of an adversary. However, as nations become more intertwined through globalisation, they become more vulnerable to disruptions in their economies, manmade or natural, due to reliance on foreign sources of raw materials, components, finished products, or key services. A nation can also use its economy to try to defeat another power. The nation can use its economic power in attempts to destroy a targets capability to take certain actions or destroy its ability to project power. Although physical defeat of the enemy is more often associated with military operations, economic means are also viable to support the elimination of a nations ability to take certain actions. 2. A nations ability to provide resources to research, develop, and further educate their people can lead to new applications of science and knowledge to solve problems in other words, technology. Technological advances can replace existing weapon and support systems to enhance or expand war fighting capability. Acquiring technology through a nations own human resources or with capital resources can allow the nation to make great leaps in economic progress. 3. Arthashastra view of economy as precursor to military power. Kautilya emphasised that, the three kinds of powers intellectual, compelling, motivating are essentially and unavoidably required to be developed and employed in a manner that they complement each other. None can be used in isolation. According to Kautilya the main aim of any state is to increase ones power, mainly at the cost of the natural enemy. This increase in power is essentially the first step in the realisation of the ambition to conquer the world. However, Kautilya also specifically mentions that the most important factor that must be weighed before starting is the gain expected from the confrontation and the losses likely to be suffered. Normally, the gain that is to accrue should far outweigh the losses in men, animals and expenses in cash and grains. Thus Kautilya professed a thoughtful approach to the cause of expanding ones kingdom and always kept the focus on resolution of the economic constraints in the w ar waging capability of the state. He has also stressed that the king is duty bound to ensure, that the people of his kingdom are happy and content, because, a happy kingdom is likely to be prosperous. He further states that a prosperous and wealthy state is unlikely to succumb to another even in case of a conflict. 4. Kosa or the Treasury. The fifth most important element of the state is the treasury according to Kautilya. All activities of the state depend on finance and therefore sufficient attention needs to be given to the treasury. Kautilya considered the treasury most valuable in raising an army, procuring equipment (including elephants), and preparing for war. After the treasury and the army, Kautilya focused on the importance of the fort, on which depends the treasury, the army, silent war, restraint of ones own party, use of armed forces, receiving allied troops, and warding off enemy troops and forest tribes. Kautilya lays down various causes that may contribute to the growth or reduction of the treasury. Kautilya says The wealth of the state shall be one acquired lawfully either by inheritance or by the kings own efforts. He further adds that the treasury should be rich enough to withstand any calamity especially when the state has no income for a long time. 5. Managing the economy for power Arthashastra approach. Management of the state necessitated realism, not idealism. It required the prudence and precise calculation of measures undertaken alongside their short and long-term consequences, which formulated the theoretical beginnings of economics: Wealth will slip away from that childish man who constantly consults the stars: the only guiding star of wealth is itself; what can the stars of the sky do? Man, without wealth, does not get it even after a hundred attempts. Just as elephants are needed to catch elephants, so does wealth capture more wealth.[22] Public welfare was contingent upon the strength of the state. The latter was achieved by internal development or territorial expansion, both of which were realized through power.[24] Hence, the prime motive of the state was the never-ending pursuit of artha. It is only after dedicating its energies to this end, can the state or king then move on to fulfilling dharma and kama. As such, the Arthashastra provides extensive coverage on the overall economy, which includes: infrastructure (roadwork, irrigation, forestry, and fortification), weights and measurements, labor and employment, commerce and trade, commodities and agriculture, land use and property laws, money and coinage, interest rates and loan markets, tariffs and taxes, and government expenditures and the treasury. The high level of detail dedicated to these areas demonstrates the remarkable organisation and centralisation of the state idealised in the Arthashastra, and it also supports the view that the information contained in the text is a compilation of works that have endured over long periods of trial and er ror. 6. The Arthashastra is surprisingly calculated on every minute detail and economic function à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" the exact number of panas[25] is provided for every salaried position, legal ramification, commodity, and livestock. Economics was regulated through such central planning and the highly detailed attempts at identifying the optimal amount for every economic function stresses this constant strive towards efficiently improving the overall utility and welfare of society. Along with prudence and careful calculation, the state is advised to be extremely active or energetic in managing the economy, as the Arthashastra states that, The root of material well-being is activity, of material disaster its reverse. In the absence of activity, there is certain destruction of what is obtained and of what is not yet received. By activity reward is obtained, and one also secures abundance of riches.Similarly, a different verse in the same chapter advocates the direction of such activity towar ds improving public welfare. Though seemingly liberal and humanitarian, this too had a very important economic basis. Hence, dedicating resources to the lower rungs of society also strengthened the peripheries of the state, which in turn actuated territorial expansion. Furthermore, providing amenities for the poor masses indirectly stimulated population growth, and thus, the overall growth of the state and economy in the long run. Hence, there is a lot of truth in the verses in which the Arthashastra states that it is the people who constitute a kingdom; like a barren cow, a kingdom without people yields nothing. The emphasis on population growth for indirectly achieving economic prosperity is also hinted elsewhere in the text, in which the Arthashastra strongly prohibits premarital sex and adultery and instead encourages fertility via rewards and punishments framed within the legal system. Central planning was directed towards maintaining stability, order, and efficiency in the eco nomy. 7. Kautilyas Principle and Aim of Economy Artha can therefore be summed up as Peace can be maintained by making war difficult and costly for the enemy through the balance of power achieved through alliances. 8. Contemporary perspective. Whilst the basis of exerting power of any country has been that of expansion in the last twenty odd years the focus has shifted from territorial expansion to one of economic expansion. There are a number of examples of countries or coalitions trying to exert pressure on other countries to ensure the protection of their own economic interests. The engagements between all the countries of the world bear testimony to the fact that almost all parties have been trying to protect their own interests in dealing with others. The principles enumerated by Kautilya in his policy of Samdhi or Treaty have almost universal application today. Countries today are indulging in more and more treaties or accords than ever before to safeguard their own interests. 9. Kautilya also mentions that war should be declared as a last resort and that all other means like sama, dana, and bheda (conciliation, gifts/bribes, dissension) should be implemented towards averting war. In other words Kautilya prefers putting pressure on the enemy without breaking the peace. These very principles have been laid down in Chapter I of the United Nations Charter, where article I states To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace. 10. This brings forth the justification of the well being of the society as the predominant factor since the ancient times till date. Also, the diversion of the resources meant for the well being of the society towards the war waging potential without the exploitation of all the options towards resolution is being despised upon. This was relevant during Kautilyas times and is as relevant today. Though economy is a major constraint in the war waging potential of a nation state, and all efforts are made by the state to strengthen this instrument of national power prior to gaining the military ascendency, it is also proving to be a major restraint in controllong the expansionist attitude of states since ancient times. CHAPTER V DERIVATION OF MILITARY POWER FROM ECONOMIC POWER 1. Economic power. Economic power can be defined broadly as the capacity to influence other states through economic means. It is composed of a countrys industrial base, natural resources, capital, technology, geographic position, health system and education system. 2. Military power. Military power is the capacity to use force or the threat of force to influence other states. Components of military power include number of divisions, armaments, organisation, training, equipment, readiness, deployment and morale. 3. Power is an elusive concept. In the historical perspective, military power has been paramount and economic power a luxury. This has slowly changed to the point that the two roles have become interchangeable. A countrys military capability is derived from its economic capacity. A countrys economic capacity also determines it capability to exert and maintain its political, social and economic independence in the world and hence a force. Economic power does not translate directly into military power but the material basis of military strength has traditionally been a starting point for assessments of military potential, and economic capacity has been treated as a necessary condition for the ability to inflict significant harm since the advent of the industrial age. 4. Wealth may result from military power or from influence over opinion, just as either of these may result from wealth. In former times, military power was isolated; with the consequence that victory or defeat appeared to depend upon the leadership qualities of commanders. In the present times, it is common to treat economic power as the source. To revert to the analogy of physics: power, like energy, must be regarded as continually passing from any one of its forms into any other. The attempt to isolate any one form of power, more especially, in our day, the economic form, has been, and still is, a source of errors of great practical importance. While it is possible to convert military power back into economic power peacefully, the cost is largely prohibitive. Forceful use of military power to build economic power is extremely risky and can have counterproductive side effects in the form of economic sanctions. Military power is also extremely difficult to sustain without correspond ing levels of economic power. For it is economic power that allows military power to be built up in the first place. 5. The traditional distinction between hard power and soft power is not entirely persuasive. Traditionally the test of a great power was strength for war. Over the centuries, as technologies evolved, the sources of power have shifted. Today, the foundations of power have been moving away from the emphasis on military force and moving towards the economic potency of a state. In the industrial age, a positive relationship has commonly been assumed to exist between the ability to sustain military force and the economic foundations of power. This is evident from a brief examination of the evolution of industrial-age operational theory regarding the targeting of the economic base of an enemy. Attacking the states economic base is a viable means of disabling an opponent. 6. The hard-soft distinction, though, is deceptive on several grounds. The words tend to imply that hard is good and soft is bad.[26] Yet in practice, policymakers believe the reverse: if they can prevail through the exercise of soft power, that is much better than having to apply, for instance, military muscle. Economic power is the foundation of military power. It is just as important to set the agenda in world affairs and attract others as it is to force them to change through the threat or use of military weapons. This aspect of power is soft power getting people to want what you want. 7. Economics is a vital element as a part of security discussions. A government can use an instrument or combination of instruments of power to persuade, coerce, or defeat an adversary.[27] A nation could try to persuade or use influence to change what a power might believe or value. Similarly, a country might want to change certain of its adversarys behaviors. A state could then use coercion to force modifications of selected behaviors. Finally, the nations government might try to eliminate another powers ability to take certain actions or capabilities through defeating them in some endeavor. Economics can be used in all three cases independently or along with political, military, and informational elements of power. 8. Arthashastra view of economy. The Arthashastra is a book based on pure logic, Anveshiki. Kautilya has considered both the differing viewpoints of the extremes before reaching any decision. Edward de-Bono, the world-renowned thinker of Lateral Thinking said, The most intelligent man is the one who can look at two different contradictory viewpoints at the same time and arrive at his own decision. This is the quality that a leader has to develop when there are people coming to him with contradictory viewpoints. The book is based on logical discussions taking into consideration all kinds of ideas of various Acharyas. 9. A king prevents deterioration in his position and secures an improvement (a desire for which is a built-in feature of the system) in two ways: by attention to the elements of his power, and by built-in feature of the system) in two ways: by attention to the elements of his power, and by external action. Kautilya enjoins the ruler to attention to the elements of his power, investment: a wise king adopts policies that add to the resources of his country and enable him to build forts, to construct buildings and commercial roads, to open new plantations and villages, to exploit mines and timber and elephant forests, and at the same time to harass similar works of the enemy. 10. Kautilya describes gift as the planned redistribution of incomes and resources in relation to domestic politics; and in relation to international politics, foreign aid. In the entire treatise about Gift as an instrument of policy of a traditional agrarian society he remarks; Gifts are a means of (favorably) influencing the disaffected[32] . Gifts and conciliation should be used to subdue weak kings, and dissension and threats against strong kings. Such gifts might include grants of land and girls in marriage, and the creation of a climate of security and freedom from fear . 11. Kautilya considered the treasury as the most valuable element of state for preparation of war. All activities of the state depend on finance and therefore sufficient attention needs to be given to the treasury. The Arthashastra regards economics as zero-sum game: the state would need to prosper economically lest it be overtaken by wealthier imperialist neighbors or suffer from internal rebellion by discontented government officials and military leaders. CHAPTER VI RESOLUTION OF ECONOMIC CONSTRAINTS TO WAR POTENTIAL 1. Military power, together with economic and political power, may be used to impose ones will upon an opponent. Other elements of national power, such as economic or political, are linked with military action at the national strategic level and passed to the operational and tactical levels of military actions through constraints or limitations on the use of force. The armed forces responsible for conducting portions of the campaign must be adequately resourced. Unfortunately, future wars will most likely be fought under substantial resource constraints. Many of these resources are used by more than one element of national power. The national policy should encompass that this potentially divisive issue of resource sharing is addressed early on. Thus the transformation of the economic strength of a nation state to military power is a solution which needs to be developed in a cooperative atmosphere and thus support the overall national power strategy. Arthashastra provided the laws of the land required to achieve unity of effort in the economic progress of the state by the resolution of the economic constraints and thus augment the military strength. 2. In practice, implementing engagement relies heavily on the manipulation on the economic elements of national power, primarily in the areas of trade and finance, to influence the behavior of other states. Engagement uses economic interdependence, or mutual dependence, to create ties that, in theory, should bind states together. Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, the analysts of Soft Power,suggest that economic interdependence should be understood in terms of the power to influence, or the effects on each state of their trade linkages. Indeed, as many scholars have indicated, states have long recognized the truth that power generally flows from asymmetrical (or imbalanced) interdependence.[34] At its core, economic statecraft is founded on the principle of asymmetrical power. 3. The Arthasastra gives an important place to economic statecraft and coercion for purposes of maintaining order. It says that the means of ensuring the pursuit of philosophy, the three Vedas and economics (arth) is the rod; the administration of the rod constitutes the discipline of politics, (dandaniti), having for its purpose the acquisition, preservation, augmentation and bestowal of things. On it is dependent the orderly maintenance of worldly life. Kautilya adds that, if the rod is not utilised, it gives rise to the law of fishes; for, the stronger swallows the weak. 4. The State of the Arthashastra is unique among those of antiquity for engaging in commodity production on a large scale. There are separate agencies for looking after production in mines factories, forests and fields. There is a money economy, mainly in the towns. The high degree of division of labour is indicated by the existence of separate agencies for the maintenance of order; collection of taxes; supervision of production; regulation of trade, weights and measures; maintenance of foreign relations; management of armed forces consisting of infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants; and administration of justice. In addition, there are agencies for managing the total revenue and expenditure, storage and censuses. Hierarchy is clearly indicated bv the mention of several levels of work. 5. The Arthashastra defines its subject as being the attainment and protection of the earth, the earth in turn being defined as the source of the livelihood of men[35] . This fusion of economic and political aspects is a highly significant characteristic of the State of the Arthashastra. It performs the political functions of holding in balance two exploiting classes, enforcing discipline on the labour class, and maintaining, relations with other kings. Economically, it is the main land clearing agency, by far the greatest land- owner, and the principal owner of organised industry and the greatest producer of commodities. 6. Kautilya provided the much wider significance of artha than merely wealth. The state or government has a crucial role to play in maintaining the material well being of the nation and its people. Therefore an important part of Arthashastra is the Science of economics. The aim of the pursuing successful economic policies particularly through productive enterprises is also to increase revenue of the state and appropriate surplus for the state treasure[36]. This surpluses were the means of ensuring the war potential of the state, be it through the economic strength of the state or by the conversion of the economic well being of the state into the military might through the resolution of the economic constraints. 7. Kautilya did not distinguish between the wealth of the sovereign and that of his subjects. IN his proposals of the rules and practices by which a king will rule successfully Kautilya explicitly recognises the engagement of the states through international trade (trade amongst kingdoms). The trade in goods and services apart from being the major vehicle for increasing wealth of the state also is a means of engagement which prove to be a deterrent or a means of coercion through the economic channel of diplomacy. 8. Arthashastra enunciated his views in gaining economic superiority through international trade, principles of taxation and the labour theory of value. All these theories postulated by Kautilya were with the aim of economic property of the state thus resolving the economic constraints to war waging potential and concurrently gain ascendancy to further the interests of the state. In proposing the economic policies Kautilya was very careful in so as not to burden the state itself. He anticipated the importance of conducting trade in accordance with the principles of comparative advantage and that imports are as important as exports in promoting the nations economic development and growth. He proposed an ideal system of taxation whose burden will be borne fairly and which distorts the economic decision making as little as possible, thus ensuring smooth flow of economic resources to the power potential of the state and in turn enhancing the war waging potential. 9. Kautilya was far ahead of his time in developing the labour theory of value to determine the just wage for the workers and ensuring that this is revised with the economic well being of the state. He explicitly recognised that the value of labour depends on the skills employed, time spent on the job and the amount of the output produced. This was very crucial in motivating the subjects to contribute maximum to the well being of the state and in turn the state ensuring the material well being of the subjects. 10. It is clear that a states engagement policies are built on the basic theoretical assumption that economic sensitivity and vulnerability in the target state will ensue from any asymmetrical trade linkages that favor the state. This assumption may be theoretically true in purely economic terms, but it is less relevant (if not erroneous) in terms of practical statecraft, the arena where economics and politics are inextricably linked. In other words, when engaging a state, during the critical risk assessment phase, the question should be asked: What impact will policy changes have inside the own state itself? 11. Arthashastra addressed both these presumptions by the way of ensuring the tangible economic growth in the state to further its military assets and motivation amongst the subjects of the state to resolve the economic constraints within which might affect the power augmentation of the state. In rethinking engagement, a keener understanding of, and greater respect for, any given opponent states ends, ways, and means for influencing the own state policy must be considered seriously by own decision makers, the guidance to which was amply provided by Kautilya. CHAPTER VII CONCLUSION 1. The very nature of war and conflict ensures that a degree of ambiguity, uncertainty, and, yes, risk will exist in any developed strategy. Clausewitz devotes the central theme of On War to this very premise; Clausewitz was not the only one to recognize the subjective nature of war, but he was the first to mark that characteristic as preeminent. Throughout his work, there are allusions to chance, luck, guesswork, uncertainty, probabilities, and so on. 2. Despite this uncertainty, there is comfort in the knowledge that others have navigated these waters before. The challenge is to somehow structure or frame the strategic problem to minimize the unknown or more importantly, to account for it. The effective strategist strives for the .closest approximation of the truth, knowing that full knowledge is impossibility. 3. An education in strategic subjects, followed by continuous historical study to maintain mental suppleness, combined with vicarious experience through exercise, and actual experience, all contribute to acquiring the skills necessary for finding the .closest approximation of the truth. Acknowledging the theoretical uncertainties inherent in war, conflict, and policy and strategy development is an important, if unsatisfying, step in understanding constraint assessment. It allows a better framing of the strategic puzzle. It is simply a matter of knowing what is not known in order to make better use of what is known 4. The simple definition of constraint as an imbalance in ends, ways, and/or means is straightforward but clearly incomplete. How does one measure the degree of constraint in any particular strategic endeavor? This is the heart of the dilemma. 5. The economic element of national power has two faces: one as a dominant element of power and the other as a source of potential susceptibility to the nation. Economic activity provides a potent source of power that includes the ability to produce goods and services, influence, a tool to weaken a possible foe, and an objective to protect in terms of a national asset. Conversely, economics is also a source of vulnerability or weakness for a nation. The nation can exist without international trade; however, the standard of living for its citizens and its wealth would certainly suffer. Economics, thus plays a predominant role in determining the power equation of the nation states in the world and as a corollary the economics of the war waging potential or the ability of the nation to influence the proceedings is largely dependent on the economic strength. This can also be viewed in the light of the ability of the state to overcome or resolve the economic constraints in the war waging potential.Economics is simply the study of the use of constrained resources. One of national leaderships main concerns involves the acquisition of additional resources or trying to maximize the use of the nations resources. In this respect, the nation state tries to expand its ability, within these constrained resources, to make goods and services and extend its access around the world to get more. A basic understanding of the scope of the nations economic power will help the reader think about how the country can use it along with other elements of power, political, military, and informational. The research addresses what makes an economy strong and how the nation can use its economic power to overcome the economic constraints to the war waging potential as illustrated in the Arthashastra by Kautilya to further its national interests. 6. A state can use an instrument or combination of instruments of power to persuade, coerce, or defeat an adversary. A nation could try to persuade or use influence to change what a power might believe or value. Similarly, a country might want to change certain of its adversarys behaviors. A state could then use coercion to force modifications of selected behaviors. Finally, the nations government might try to eliminate another powers ability to take certain actions or capabilities through defeating them in some endeavor. Economics can be used in all three cases independently or along with political, military, and informational elements of power. Kautilya in Arthashastra has provided for all the economic means to cater for these cases. 7. Arthashastra by Prof L N Rangarajan explicitly deals with all the aspects of statecraft as linked to the economic activities of the state. The principles of Economic administration[40] have been explained to the minutest of details by Kautilya .The importance renderd to Artha over Dharma and Kama being the three pillars of statecraft is evidence enough of the part that economics plays in the state. 8. The economic well being of the state intrusively is the bedrock of the military might of the nation. The examples of Japan and more recently China have reestablished the postulates as enunciated by Kautilya. This is the stepping stone towards resolution of all the economic constraints which a state might encounter in its quest for power. Economics is an instrument of power but also the source of the other instruments of power like the military and diplomacy. Kautilyas Principle and Aim of economics can therefore be summed up as Peace can be maintained by making war difficult and costly for the enemy through the balance of power achieved through alliances. 9. Kautilya also mentions that war should be declared as a last resort and that all other means like sama, dana, and bheda (conciliation, gifts/bribes, dissension) should be implemented towards averting war. In other words Kautilya prefers putting pressure on the enemy without breaking the peace and this can be successful only be resolution of all the constraints primarily the economic constraints to the war waging potential of a state. 10. It is interesting to note that in the 4th century BC, Kautilya had realised that prosperity and safety were completely interlinked. He therefore advised the King to look after his subjects and states that in their happiness lies the Kings happiness. He opines that a state with a contended and satisfied population is more likely to be a strong and powerful state capable of maintaining its sovereignty rather than a state wherein the people are unhappy. Kautilya classified the work force into three broad categories: Knowledge workers (including advisers), production workers (farmers and others) and the soldiers. He implicitly proposed a virtuous model of economic growth in which, income, governance, knowledge and ethical conduct were determined endogenously which contributed to the realization of power of a state and thus further its interests. 11. Kautilya believed that national sovereignty was a prerequisite for economic prosperity. So he gave the highest priority to national security since only freedom from foreign rule gave the freedom to pursue economic and spiritual goals. Therefore, he asserted, An enemys destruction shall be brought about even at the cost of great losses in men, material and wealth (7.13).[43] This model of constraint management is followed till date and has been the initiation of determining the potential of states in the power quest. 12. There are two critical roles played by foresightedness: (i) to foresee and devise preventive and remedial measures in advance of the possible occurrences of constraints or adversities, and (ii) to recognize the interaction between self-protection and self insurance measures, that is, adjusting remedial measures in the light of the preventive measures. Kautilya emphasized the first role of foresightedness but it is doubtful that he understood the second role. Kautilya recommended that the king should be tireless in his efforts to see beforehand the occurrence of a constraint or disaster. Note ,foresightedness and forecasting are complementary, since foresightedness helps in finding long-term and reliable solutions whereas forecasting helps in devising immediate remedial measures. Kautilya stated, All state activities depend first on the Treasury. Therefore, a King shall devote his best attention to it. A King with a depleted Treasury eats into the very vitality of the citizens and the country.[44] 13. It is interesting to note that Kautilya has spelt out a large number of rules and procedures for his King so as to be successful and be able to expand his kingdom. If one considers the 4th century BC King to be a elected Head of State in the 21st century and then draws parallels whilst considering the impact of technology, especially that in the information age, it is evident that the dictums of Kautilya are as valid today as they were in his times. Kautilya has essentially laid down the ground rules for humanity as a whole to be prosperous and satisfied, till such time that the basic nature of human being changes the dictums of Kautilya are unlikely to be irrelevant even in the days to follow. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Rangarajan L N Kautilya Arthashastra Penguin Books, 1992 2. Kangle R. P. Kautilya The Arthasastra Part II , 2d ed., translation., Delhi: Motilal Banardisass, 1992. 3. Kangle.R P Kautilya- The Arthasastra Part III, A Study. Bombay: Registrar, University of Bombay,1965 4. Banarsidas Motilal, Chandragupta Mauraya and his times, Delhi,1988. 5. Parmar, Aradhana, Techniques of statecraft: A study of Kautilayas Arthashastra, Atmaram and Sons , Delhi ,1987. 6. Boesche Roger Kautilyas ArthaņºÃƒâ€ž?stra on War and Diplomacy in Ancient India The Journal of Military History, Vol. 67, No. 1 (Jan., 2003), pp. 9-37 https://www.jstor.org/stable/3093167 , 03 Nov 09. 7. Modelski George Kautilya: Foreign Policy and International System in the Ancient Hindu World The American Political Science Review, Vol. 58, No. 3 Sep., 1964, pp. 549-560, American Political Science Association Stable https://www.jstor.org/stable/1953131,15 Dec 2009 8. Brown D. Mackenzie The Premises of Indian Political Thought, The Western Political Quarterly, Vol. 6, No. 2 Jun., 1953, pp. 243-249 University of Utah on behalf of the Western Political Science Association,https://www.jstor.org/stable/442160, 18 Dec 09 9. Waldauer Charles, Zahka William J and Pal Surendra , Kautilyas Arthashastra à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" A neglected precursor to classical economics ,Indian Economic review Vol XXXI No. 1 1996 pp 101-108 10. Islam Sayem , The Arthashastra-Insights on Statecraft and Reflections of Ancient Indian Society 11. Deva Satya, State and Bureaucracy in Kautilyas Arthasastra ,Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 19, No. 19 May 12, 1984, pp. 811-815 https://www.jstor.org/stable/4373251, 21Dec 09. 12. Lemire Major Judith K. Towards an Integrated Campaign Plan: The Use of Political, Economic, and Military Elements of National Power at the Operational Level of War,1993, School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. 13. Kamath M.V, Kautilya for the 21st Century ,Book review Dr Narayanacharya K.S.and. Relevance of Kautilya for Today, 24 Dec 09 14. Summary on Kautilyas Arthashastra: Its Contemporary Relevance Publshied by Indian Merchants Chamber, 2004. 24 Dec 09. 15. Boone Bartholomees J., jr., Guide to national security policy and strategy, U.S. Army War College, July 2004, 30 Dec 09 16. Message from: akmal00, The teachings of Kautilyas Arthashastra, Post Date: 18/05/2008 , [emailprotected]/* */,[emailprotected]/* */, 30 Dec 09. 17. Nye Joseph S., Jr.The Changing Nature of World Power,Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 105, No. 2 (Summer, 1990), pp. 177-192 The Academy of Political Science https://www.jstor.org/stable/2151022, 30 Dec 09 [1] Roger Boesche, Kautilyas Arthashastra on War and Diplomacy in Ancient India, 2003, p15.Roger Boesche is Professor of Politics and Arthur G. Coons Professor of the History of Ideas at Occidental College in Los Angeles. His most recent book is The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra. [2] Max Weber Politics as a vocation in Weber, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978, p 212-25. Ethics of Responsibility was a type advocated by in his lecture. [3] Boesche. Op cit. , pp 22. [4] Henry C. Bartlett, G. Paul Holman, Jr., and Timothy E. Somes, .The Art of Strategy and Force Planning,. in Strategy and Force Planning : RI: Naval War College Press,1995), p. 20. [5] John M. Collins, Grand Strategy: Principles and Practices Annapolis MD: Naval Institute Press, 1973, p. 5. [6] B. H. Liddell Hart, Strategy, 2nd ed. (New York: Meridian, 1991), p. 322-323. [7] Kautilya, The Arthasastra, 2d ed., and trans. R. P. Kangle, Part II of The Kautiliya Arthasastra (Delhi: Motilal Banardisass, 1992), book 5, chapter 3, line 35-36, page 304 Kautilya Arthashastra, 5.3.35à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"36: pp. 304 [8] Ibid. 5.3.47: pp305 [9] Ibid. 7.6.17: pp339. [10] Ibid. 10.3.1à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"2: pp 438 [11] Ibid. 12.1.32: pp 462. [12] Ibid. 12.17à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"32: pp 461à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"62; 12.2.8à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"33: pp 462à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"64 [13] Ibid. 12.2.1à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"7: pp462. [14] Ibid. 8.1.38à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"40: pp388 [15] Ibid. 7.10.33: pp355. [16] Ibid. 7.15.11: pp370 [17] Ibid. 7.14.18à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"19: pp368 [18] Ibid. 9.2.21à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"24: pp412 [19] Ibid. 7.11.23à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"25: pp357 [20] Ibid. 8.2.18: pp392 [21] Aleksandr A. Svechin, Strategy, (Minneapolis: East View Publications, 1992), p. 84. [22] L N Rangarajan, Kautilya: The Arthashastra, 1992, Penguin Books, p 637. [23] Ibid. pp 559. Strength is power; happiness is the objective of using power. Power and success are interrelated. Power is of three kinds; so is the success resulting from its use a prosperous treasury and a strong army provide physical power [24] L N Rangarajan, Kautilya: The Arthashastra, 1992, Penguin Books, p 117. [25] Ibid. pp 109-110.The coin most often mentioned in the Arthashastra is the pana. Rangarajan states that the value of a pana in relation to the cost of living is in (5.3.34); an annual salary of 60 panas could be substituted by an adhaka of grain per day, enough for four meals for one Arya male (2.15.43) given the fact of a cash wage of 5 panas a month for the lowest paid, the pana was, indeed, a valuable coin. [26] Joseph S. Nye, Jr The Changing Nature of World Power Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 105, No. 2 (Summer, 1990), pp. 177-192 [27] David E. Johnson, Karl P. Mueller, and William H. Taft, V. Conventional Coercion Across the Spectrum of Operations RND Corporation, 2002. [28] R. Shamasastry,Translation of Kautilyas Arthasastra, 4th edition Book I Chap 13 Mysore, 1951. [29] Ibid. Book II Chap 10 [30] Ibid Book IX Chap 5 [31] Ibid Book IX Chap 6 [32] Ibid Book IX Chap 6 [33] Albert Hirschman, National Power and the Structure of Foreign Trade (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1945). [34] Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Power and Interdependence (3d. ed.; New York: Addison-Wesley Publishing, 2000),pp. 10-11. [35] R P Kangle translation of Kautilya Arthashastra Arthashastra Book XV Chapter I [36] LN Rangarajan Kautilaya The Arthashastra 1992 Penguin Books p 13 [37] L N Rangarajan Kautilya Arthashastra Penguin books 1992 p. 56-57 [38] Ibid. pp 2 [39] Ibid. pp 125 [40] Ibid. pp 200-211 [41] Ibid. pp 541 [42] Ibid. pp 149 [43] Ibid pp 116 [44] Ibid pp 253

The XYZ Affair Dispute Between France and the U.S.

The XYZ Affair was a dispute between diplomats from France and the United States in 1797 and 1798, during the early days of the presidential administration of John Adams that resulted in a limited, undeclared war known as the Quasi-War. Peace was quickly restored when the U.S. and France agreed on the Convention of 1800, also known as the Treaty of Mortefontaine. The dispute’s name comes from the letters used by President Adams to refer to the French diplomats: Jean Hottinguer (X), Pierre Bellamy (Y), and Lucien Hauteval (Z). Key Takeaways: The XYZ Affair The XYZ Affair was a serious diplomatic dispute between France and the United States in 1797 and 1798 that led to the undeclared war between the nations known as the Quasi-War.The name of the affair comes from the letters X, Y, and Z used by U.S. President John Adams to refer to the names of three of the French diplomats involved.The dispute and Quasi-War were resolved by the Convention of 1800, also known as the Treaty of Mortefontaine. Background In 1792, France went to war with Britain, Austria, and several other European monarchies. U.S. President George Washington had directed America to remain neutral. However, France, angered by the United States’ conclusion of Jay’s Treaty with Great Britain in 1795, began seizing American ships transporting goods to their enemies. In response, President John Adams sent U.S diplomats Elbridge Gerry, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, and John Marshall to France in July 1797 with orders to restore harmony. Far from brokering peace, the U.S. envoys soon found themselves embroiled in the XYZ Affair. Jay's Treaty Had Angered France Ratified in 1795, Jay’s Treaty between the United States and Great Britain peacefully resolved issues lingering after the Treaty of Paris of 1783 had ended the American Revolutionary War. The treaty also facilitated a decade of peaceful trade between the United States and Britain during the height of the bloody French Revolutionary Wars. Having just helped the U.S. defeat the British in its own revolution, France was deeply angered by Jay’s Treaty. In the United States, the treaty divided Americans, contributing to the creation of America’s first political parties, the pro-Treaty Federalists and the anti-Treaty Anti-Federalists or Democratic Republicans. The XYZ Negotiations: A Bad Time Was Had by All Even before they sailed for Paris, American diplomats Gerry, Pinckney, and Marshall were not optimistic. Like others in the Adams administration, they viewed the French government—the Directory—as a source of such extreme decadence and intrigue that it would stand in the way of accomplishing their mission. Sure enough, as soon as they arrived, the American trio was told they would not be allowed to meet face-to-face with the French Foreign Minister and chief diplomat, the flamboyant and unpredictable Maurice de Talleyrand. Instead, they were met by Talleyrand’s intermediaries, Hottinguer (X), Bellamy (Y), and Hauteval (Z). Also stirring the pot was French playwright Pierre Beaumarchais, who had helped funnel much-needed French money to the United States during the American Revolution. X, Y, and Z told the Americans that Talleyrand would meet with them only if they agreed to satisfy three conditions: The United States had to agree to provide France with a substantial low-interest loan.The United States had to agree to pay all claims of damages filed against France by owners of American merchant ships seized or sunk by the French Navy.The United States had to pay a bribe of 50,000 British pounds directly to Talleyrand, himself. While the U.S. envoy was aware that diplomats from other nations had paid bribes in order to deal with Talleyrand, they were shocked and doubted that any such concessions on their part would result in substantial changes in French policy. In reality, Talleyrand had intended to end the French attacks on U.S. merchant shipping all along, but only after increasing his personal wealth and political influence within the French Directory government. In addition, Talleyrand’s intermediaries, X, Y, and Z, having invested heavily in U.S. businesses themselves, wanted to preserve peace. However, emboldened by France’s victories in its ongoing war with Britain, X, Y, and Z increased the amount of the requested U.S. loan and even threatened a military invasion of America if the U.S. diplomats refused to agree. When the U.S. diplomats held their ground and refused to agree to the French demands, Talleyrand finally met with them. While he dropped his demands for a loan and a bribe, he refused to put an end to French seizures of American merchant ships. While Americans Pinckney and Marshall prepared to leave France, Elbridge Gerry decided to remain, hoping to avert an outright war. President John Adams Reaction to the XYZ Affair As he read the disheartening reports from Gerry, Pinckney, and Marshall, President Adams prepared for war with France. While pro-war Federalists urged Congress to support him, Democratic-Republican leaders distrusted his motives and demanded that he make the diplomatic correspondence from Paris public. Adams agreed, but knowing the sensitivity of the contents, he redacted the names of Talleyrand’s intermediaries, replacing them with the letters X, Y, and Z. He also used the letter W to refer to Nicholas Hubbard, an Englishman employed by a Dutch bank who took part in the latter stages of the negotiations. Though Adams prepared for war, he never officially declared it. In France, Talleyrand, realizing the risks of his actions, sought to restore diplomatic relations with America and the U.S. Congress agreed to negotiate directly with the French Directorate. Meanwhile, in the Caribbean, the U.S. Navy had started fighting French forces commanded by Napoleon Bonaparte attempting to defeat Toussaint L’Ouverture, leader of the Haitian independence movement. The Convention of 1800 By 1799, Napoleon had come to power in France and was focused on recovering the North American Louisiana territory from Spain. Talleyrand, retained by Napoleon as Foreign Minister, was trying to prevent further hostilities with the U.S. The British, still at war with France, were thrilled with the growing anti-French sentiment in the U.S. and offered to help the Americans fight their common foe. However, President Adams was convinced that if France had really wanted an all-out war it would have responded to America’s attacks on French ships in the Caribbean. For his part, Talleyrand, also fearing the costs of a full-scale war, hinted that he would meet with a new American diplomat. Despite the public’s and the Federalists’ desire for war, Adams sent not one, but three peace negotiators—William Vans Murray, Oliver Ellsworth, and William Richardson Davie—to France. In March 1800, American and French diplomats finally convened in Paris to hammer out a peace agreement. After first annulling the 1778 Treaty of Alliance, they reached a new agreement based on the original Model Treaty of 1776 that would become known as the Convention of 1800.  Ã‚   The agreement peacefully ended the 1778 alliance between the United States and France while releasing France from any financial responsibility for damages to U.S. shipping and commerce since the start of the French Revolution. The specific terms of the Convention of 1800 included: The Quasi-War was to end.France agreed to return captured American ships.U.S. agreed to compensate its citizens for damages inflicted by France on American shipping (damages totaled $20 million; U.S. paid $3.9 million to heirs of original claimants in 1915).The Franco-American Alliance was terminated.U.S. and France granted each other most-favored-nation status.U.S. and France reestablished commercial relations on terms similar to those outlined in Franco-American Alliance. It would not be for nearly 150 more years that the United States would enter into another formal alliance with a foreign country: the Montevideo Convention was ratified in 1934. Sources Stinchcombe, William (1980). â€Å"The XYZ Affair.† Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313222344.Berkin, Carol. â€Å"A Sovereign People: The Crises of the 1790s and the Birth of American Nationalism.† New York: Basic Books, 2017.DeConde, Alexander. â€Å"The Quasi-War: The Politics and Diplomacy of the Undeclared War with France, 1797-1801.† New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1966.Kuehl, John W. â€Å"Southern Reaction to the XYZ Affair: An Incident in the Emergence of American Nationalism.† Register of the Kentucky Historical Society 70, no. 1 (1972)Lyon, E. Wilson (September 1940). â€Å"The Franco-American Convention of 1800.† The Journal of Modern History.

World War Ii and Hitler - 8135 Words

World War Two Causes Information and Activity Worksheets Ages 11 - 14 H Y Wheeler Worksheets This booklet has been printed and sold by History on the Net to be used as a teaching resource The purchaser is entitled to photocopy these pages for personal, educational or non-profit usage provided that the copyright notice is not removed The copyright of this booklet and its contents remains the property of H Y Wheeler and History on the Net  © 2005 H Y Wheeler History on the Net Section 1 Introduction Page 1 Page 2 Page 3 Page 4 Page 5 Page 6 - Information - Suggested Activities - What is Causation? Information Sheet - Causation Card Sort - Causes of World War Two Card Sort - Causation Wordsearch Section 2 The Treaty of Versailles Page†¦show more content†¦What is Causation? – Information Sheet and Card Sort 2. General discussion about what caused World War Two 3. Causes of World War Two Card Sort – can be combined with Causation Card Sort 4. Causation Wordsearch Page 2 WWII Causes Information Activity Book  © 2005 H Y Wheeler www.historyonthenet.com What is Causation? When historians talk about causation, they are trying to find out why something happened. The reasons for things happening are often divided into different categories: Social, economic, political, technological, military They can also be divided into time periods: Long term, medium term, short term Many things that happen also have a trigger event – the final straw, or the event that finally causes something else to happen Example 1 Mr Brown needed more money so he took a second job at night. Mr Brown was very tired and didn t hear his alarm clock. Mr Brown had to rush to get to his day job on time. Mr Brown was driving too fast and crashed his car Social, Economic Long Term Technological Short Term Economic Short Term Trigger Event What caused Mr Brown to crash his car? The trigger that made him crash was the fact that he was driving too fast But, if Mr Brown had not been in a rush maybe he would have driven slower And, if Mr Brown had heard his alarm clock he would not have been in a rush Mr BrownShow MoreRelatedAdolf Hitler And The World War II Essay1653 Words   |  7 Pagesoverwinter. The overthrow marks the stop of Germany s eastward adduce. Introduction The volatility produce in Europe by the First World War (1914-18) regulate the scaffold for another international fight–World War II–which stony-broke out two decades inferior and would try even more withering. Rising to command in an economically and politicly changeable Germany, Adolf Hitler and his National Socialist (Nazi Party) rearmed the people and type strategic treaties with Italy and Japan to further his ambitionsRead MoreHitler s Impact On The World War II1636 Words   |  7 Pagesa square, saluting and chanting Hitler s name. 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A Chronicle of the Plague Free Essays

The Black Death: A Chronicle of the Plague by Johannes Nohl (1882–1963) is an illustrative book that traces down the flux of plague and its effects in Europe over the centuries. It examines this malady from historical and sociological perspective. The major contribution of Johannes Nohl is that he does not rely on secondary sources but has researched the contemporary chronicles to locate the pathos and miseries that this epidemic afflicted on the populations of Europe over the centuries. We will write a custom essay sample on A Chronicle of the Plague or any similar topic only for you Order Now Scope of work is both intensive and extensive as he has provided an in-depth study that encompasses four centuries (1337-1720) and a vast geographical area from Western Europe to Russia and from Nordic ice-burgs to the Mediterranean Sea. In addition to being a historian, Johannes Nohl was also a psychoanalyst. So The Black Death: A Chronicle of the Plague is not a mere chronicle of the plague its effects but also it further analyzes the socio-cultural, psychological and economic effects of this epidemics on the whole European civilization that persist in certain societies hitherto. It beautifully blends the comprehensive accounts of the pandemic that caused almost 40 million deaths a single century during the fourteenth century alone with durable socio-cultural impact. The book also locates that how people countered these epidemics and what practical measures were adopted to tackle the problem at large scale. Nohl illustrate that Black Death changed the patterns of life and affected all facets of culture as people migrated from one geographical location to the other to escape themselves from this epidemic. First two chapters, The Aspect of the Plague and The Precursors of the Plague describe the nature of plague as it was understood by the contemporary societies. Nohl has explored through contemporary chronicles that Plague was considered a celestial phenomenon as plague use to visit the European societies sporadically in the form of a natural disaster. Furthermore, Nohl explores that most usual route of these epidemics were from India to Central Asia and then to Europe through trade groups and in Europe it used to spread along with waterways in the shape of a natural catastrophe. In the next two chapters The Medical Profession and Plague Remedies, Nohl discovers the available medical remedies in the medieval societies and how medical professionals reacted to it. Contemporary chironicles suggest that mostly people used to rely on religious conviction and pilgrimages rather than visiting a doctor. Most medical treatment was based on plant extracts. Availability and affordability of medicines were another problem due to mass scale spread and impact of the disease. Nohl looks into the various other socio-political aspects of the epidemic. For example, aadministrative precautions mostly included individual and group exclusion from the community of the hale and hearty. A systematic effort in this regards was not possible as plague used to erupt abruptly, so it was administered intermittently. Nohl has not only provided the official and royal manuscripts and chronicles but to present the conditions and miseries of the general public, he has included chronicles of travelers, contemporary historians. These clearly manifest that plague had different effects of different social classes and each class was treated in a different way both socially and administratively. In addition to socio-cultural and political effects, epidemic of plague had cast their disturbing impact on the worldview Christian community. Church responded in its own way to the pandemic. The Church labeled it as a reaction of sins and their only remedy was ritualistic deliverance that would purge the sins. So ritualistic practices were used to organize at the individual and collective level. Some other Christian followers were of the view that world is overtaken by the evil as Divinity itself was a friend of mankind and how it could afflict it with such pathos and miseries. Another section of orthodox sect, The Luciferians were of the view that God had toppled down Lucifer, their lord, and had taken over heaven. So this is a natural response of this tragedy. (Nohl 1924, 161-163). Some other compared the disease as an Arial and celestial phenomenon that was beyond the strength and capacity of mankind. This view was further reinforced by the fact that prior to the Black Death, in 1117, the eruption of plague was coincided with a cosmic phenomenon that medieval mind was unable to comprehend. Nohl states in this regard that In 1117, in January, a comet passed like a fiery army from North toward the orient, the moon was o’ercast blood-red in an eclipse, a year later a light appeared more brilliant than the sun,. This was followed by great cold, famine and plague, of which one-third of the humanity have said to have perished. Nohl further describes same coincidences in 1568, 1582 and 1606 when Netherlands, Prague and Vienna were badly affected with plague. This shaped the general mentality that plague is an extra human phenomenon and mankind had no control over it. The social fabric of the whole European society was transformed by these notions and beliefs. Nohl depicts that beside human causalities, first social causality was breakdown of social order. There was â€Å"an incapacity to believe that so uncanny a disease as the plague could be attributable to natural causes† which led â€Å"the fateful misconception of [its] artificial production† (Nohl 171). This belief molded their worldview and they become more recluse and a believers in the fictitious remedial rituals. Nohl also illustrates an interesting but tragic fact that plague was intentionally passed on to others. He located the motive for this deliberate infection as infectants did not want to undergo the agonies alone. Furthermore, it was common belief that one could liberate oneself of his contagion by transmitting it to others (Nohl 171). Nohl also provides evidences when someone infected his/her rival or enemy due to sheer malice and enmity. Sometime, Lutherans were blamed for this curse but more often Jews were labeled as propellants of this deadly disease. So they were persecuted on mass level to purge the society from this malady but it is a fact that Jews used running streams for their sanitary purposes unlike Christian who used contaminated public wells that were often a prime cause for dispersal of various diseases. Toward end, the book has an interesting chapter, The Erotic Element in the Plague that relation sexuality with deadly disease. This book covers all aspects of Black Death pertaining to the contemporary medieval societies and all these are supported with the contemporary chronicles. It not only provides a synopsis of whole epidemic history but provides an in-depth analysis of the entire phenomenon. References Nohl, Johannes. 1924. The Black Death: A Chronicle of the Plague. Translated by C. H. Clarke. New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers. How to cite A Chronicle of the Plague, Papers

Caring for the elderly L3 unit safeguarding of vulnerble adults free essay sample

Safeguarding of vulnerable adults (S0VA) There are many different types of abuse and they can effect people in different ways. There are many adults that are more vulnerable to abuse. Here are a few examples of this: * People who suffer from dementia as they are less likely to remember what has happened to them. * People who have a mental illness or suffer with learning disabilities as they may not understand what is happening to them. ( They may think it’s a normal thing to do), Therefore may not tell anyone it has happened but could also do the same to somebody else as they think it’s the right thing to do. People with a physical disability rely on people to help them with everything, they maybe unable to move which means any physical abuse they wouldn’t be able to move away from. Physical abuse Physical abuse is when someone inflicts pain or harm to a persons body. the elderly and disabled are more at risk of this as they may not understand what is happing or be able to defend themselves. physical abuse can be caused in many different ways such as: * Biting * Hitting * Punching * Restraint * Slapping * Pushing * Misuse of Medicines * Inappropriate sanctions These are the most common ways of physical abuse . the main signs of abuse are: * lacerations * dislocations * bruising * fractures * finger prints If you are caring for a service user and you notice marks, cuts or bruises in suspicious places you should ask the service user how these marks come about? If the service user is unsure take note of this, use a sheet of paper to draw a figure of a person and mark the areas of which you have founds any suspicious marks, Then report this to your manager all marks even minor ones should be reported at all times as even the smallest bruise may be apart of abuse or handled inappropriately . If you go to care for a service user and they are not consistent with how they suffered an injury this may be because they have been abused. For example: You are on a morning visit to ms Wilson whom you visit every morning. on this particular morning ms Wilson has a large bruise to the outer thigh. you ask ms Wilson how she got this bruise? she reply’s I fell out of bed you take note of this and report it to your manager with the explanation of how it happened.  the next morning you see ms Wilson and ask her how she got the bruise on her thigh she reply’s I lost balance and fell into the table this story is inconsistent therefore maybe a case of abuse. You should tell your manager, police or social services if you think this may be caused by abuse. Neglect Neglect is when your receiving insufficient care such as: * inadequate food and drinks * ignoring physical needs * ignoring toiletry needs * warmth * hygiene Neglect can happen in many different ways. The service u ser may be deprived of food and drink causing malnutrition and dehydrated this can make the service user very ill and disorientated. Neglect can be that the service user is kept in soiled clothes/bedding not washed regularly. any signs of this should be reported to the manager or social services. there are signs of neglect that should be looked out for such as the service user may show: * significant weight loss over a small period of time * malnutrition * dehydration *depression *hypothermia *pressure sores *inadequate clothing or bedding * no response to medication * lack of medical attention Neglect can also be unseen such as medication, medication may be tampered with, The service user may be given more or less of which has been prescribed.  causing drowsiness and discomfort. Sexual abuse Sexual abuse is one of the worst forms of abuse for anyone at any age. sexual abuse is where someone has preformed sexual acts or rape when consent has not been given. There are many things signs or symptoms connected to this kind of abuse, these are: * pain around the private areas * itching or infections (STIS) * marks ar ound the groin area and possibly around the throat * difficulty standing or walking * withdrawal * wanting to be alone * change in personality * torn or ripped clothing If you come across any of these signs or symptoms you must report to your manager, police or social services. emotional abuse Emotional abuse can be done in many different ways the main ways are when someone: * rejects or refuses to acknowledge a persons presence, value or worth. * deliberately humiliating or hurting there feelings * making them feel worthless This can make them withdrawn or suffer with depression, anxiety and no self confidence. If any of these occur then report to your manager or gp. intuitional abuse This is an inward abuse such as depression or can have the effects of a breakdown. The service user feels they are useless, cant do anything right. They may feel like they are a burden so refuse intervention. This makes them feel depressed, withdrawn and un-wanting to communicate with anyone. they can become insecure or nervous they also may seem troubled. Confidentiality may be broken in any of these cases. If you feel persons are at risk you must report to your line manager, even if there is no substantial evidence but enough for you to feel they may be abuse happening as abuse can be hidden and may not have any obvious signs. 2) should confidentiality be broken in any of these cases? Linda has been shoplifting but does not want to tell anyone in this case confidentiality does not need to be broken as Linda is not at harm or risk of herself or others. b) martin has bruising on his forehead, he can explain what has happened and his story is consistent with his family’s versions of events confidentiality does not need to be broken at the moment as his bruising is in a place where he could easily hurt himself by falling but i would observe to make sure bruises didn’t appear also mentioning this to line manager so they are aware of his injury. Donna complains that one of the male carers keeps coming into her room at night confidentiality can be broken in this case as there is risk for donnas safety. d) Stephen says he does not have the money to buy cigarettes anymore, he thinks someone is taking his money confidentiality does not need to be broken in this case at the moment as Stephen is not at risk but the situation does need to be investigated. e) on a home visit Megan has round burns that could be cigarette burns, you notice she seems scared of some of her relatives confidentiality can be broken as Megan has noticeable injuries and is distressed. We had a lady resident move into our home who has had a leg amputated due to diabetes. we set up a room downstairs for her so she can join in with activities and make it wheelchair friendly for her to maintain as much of her independence as possible. she was also a smoker, it is illegal to smoke inside so a carer smoker or non-smoker would take her outside for her cigarette. being a diabetic she was on a restricted diet which was maintained and when others were offered cakes or sweets ect it was made sure that there was sugar-free options available to her.just because she is unable to walk does not mean she should be excluded from joining in with activities and just because she is diabetic does not mean she cant have sweets or cakes. 4) All legislation is there to protect all kinds of people from all background all of the time. for instance the disability discrimination act 2005 was brought into place so that any person with any form of disability was given the same rights as any ful ly healthy person.  offices ect had to make there buildings wheelchair friendly and suitable for a disabled persons needs as with W. C needs. thesexual discrimination act 1975 was brought in so that women and men were both treated equally and both had the rights to do the same job opportunities as each other in all job aspects, this meaning a women has the same rights as a man whether it was mechanics, butchers, plumbers ect which always used to be a mans job and men can be midwifery’s and nurses ect.